![]() Otherwise, the proper response would be propitiation, not rational investigation. Gods and spirits, it was held, could not be completely arbitrary in their actions. Spiritual and divine forces were accepted as both real and necessary until the end of the 18th century and, in areas such as biology, deep into the 19th century as well.Ĭertain conventions governed the appeal to God or the gods or to spirits. If the history of science is to make any sense whatsoever, it is necessary to deal with the past on its own terms, and the fact is that for most of the history of science natural philosophers appealed to causes that would be summarily rejected by modern scientists. But even if causation and explanation are admitted as necessary, there is little agreement on the kinds of causes that are permissible, or possible, in science. Modern biology, on the other hand, thrives on causal chains that permit the understanding of physiological and evolutionary processes in terms of the physical activities of entities such as molecules, cells, and organisms. Modern quantum mechanics, for example, has given up the quest for causation and today rests only on mathematical description. Some insist that genuine understanding demands explanations of the causes of the laws, but it is in the realm of causation that there is the greatest disagreement. Regularities, even when expressed mathematically as laws of nature, are not fully satisfactory to everyone. Science, therefore, must employ a certain degree of skepticism to prevent premature generalization. True regularities must be established by detached examination of data. Thus, for example, one of the astronomical “laws” of the Middle Ages was that the appearance of comets presaged a great upheaval, as the Norman Conquest of Britain followed the comet of 1066. The mind cannot tolerate chaos, so it constructs regularities even when none objectively exists. In the first place, regularities may be simply constructs of the human mind. The mere recognition of regularities does not exhaust the full meaning of science, however. Science defined simply as knowledge of natural processes is universal among humankind, and it has existed since the dawn of human existence. With the invention of agriculture, the seasons became even more crucial, for failure to recognize the proper time for planting could lead to starvation. The seasons determine the migration of animals upon which humans have depended for millennia for survival. Day and night provide the basic rhythm of human existence. Both motions correlate with important terrestrial events. Some motions, like the daily “motion” of the Sun, are simple to observe, while others, like the annual “motion” of the Sun, are far more difficult. The Sun and the Moon periodically repeat their movements. There are many regularities in nature that humankind has had to recognize for survival since the emergence of Homo sapiens as a species. ![]() On the simplest level, science is knowledge of the world of nature. History of science, the development of science over time. ![]() SpaceNext50 Britannica presents SpaceNext50, From the race to the Moon to space stewardship, we explore a wide range of subjects that feed our curiosity about space!.Learn about the major environmental problems facing our planet and what can be done about them! Saving Earth Britannica Presents Earth’s To-Do List for the 21st Century.100 Women Britannica celebrates the centennial of the Nineteenth Amendment, highlighting suffragists and history-making politicians.COVID-19 Portal While this global health crisis continues to evolve, it can be useful to look to past pandemics to better understand how to respond today.Student Portal Britannica is the ultimate student resource for key school subjects like history, government, literature, and more.This Time in History In these videos, find out what happened this month (or any month!) in history.#WTFact Videos In #WTFact Britannica shares some of the most bizarre facts we can find.Demystified Videos In Demystified, Britannica has all the answers to your burning questions.Britannica Classics Check out these retro videos from Encyclopedia Britannica’s archives. ![]()
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